Albanian Music History

Albanian Music History - an Analysis

Defining the roots of the albanian music...

Most in the western world have mistaken Albanian music as merely Turkish or Greek. Others would argue that the Albanian musical tradition is distingueshed by its originality and provides a solid historical foundation for early European music. Few have acknowledged the fact that Illyricum (today Shqiperia - Albania), was one of the first areas to be influenced by the new Christian liturgy which would have been distributed around the early churches at that time (I -II BC). Also, almost no one is aware that bagpipes have originated from the region of Southern Albania and Northen Greece. The above features have shaped the debate between Albanian and Western musicologists.

We can expand on the fact that early music was used a lot to animate the rituals of different Illyrian tribes. Songs of this time in history would have consisted of a single, simple and repetitive melodic line which would have been accompanied mostly by percussion instruments, backing voices and primitive wind instruments. We do not know if the early harp was widely used in this area before the birth of Christ. The main historical fact that would favour the harp's existence in the Balkans, would be the invasion from the Roman Empire, which would have brought with it, its culture and instruments.

Albania has traditionally been a country which has passed its historical stages under the invasion of other empires and therefore we could assume that its music has a taste of each of these cultures. This continued until the beggining of this century when Albania came out of 500 years of Turkish occupation. Therefore, one can ask the natural question whether such a thing as a truly Albanian music exists or not ! The answer to this question would have to be found only by taking a close look at the character of the Albanian people. People who have always wanted freedom, family life; People who were used to fighting and isolating themselves. The constant invasions have continuously obliged the Albanians to isolate themselves in the high mountains, where they would loose touch with the neighbouring world. Therefore we could argue that because of this isolasion, their music could have been better preserved, probably more than that of some other countries.

So, what has been preserved by these people? Let us take a deeper look at what we find in Albania during this century. Until the second half (1945-1955), the entire musical life of Albania was determined by folk music. This is characterized by archaic forms and practices that can provide information on previous stages of musical development in Europe. Few sources are available for scientific investigation as field research projects have not covered the whole country. Ramadan Sokoli's collection and studies, the material from Eric Stockman's German-Albanian expedition and the activities of the Institute of Folklore of the University of Tirana have contributed considerably to research work.

There is a clear and marked difference, particularly in the vocal folk music, between the northen and southern parts of the country, divided by the Shkumbin River. The Gegs (north) have a tradition of monophonic singing whereas the Tosks (south) have developed many types of part-singing, probably more than any other region in Europe; much of it may belong to the earliest stratum of European vocal poliphony.

History of Tirana

Ancient traces of inhabitation in Tirana's area

Basilica

Basilica

The Fortress of Petrela

The Fortress of Preza

The Paleolithic station in the northeast of Dajti�s mountainside called The Black Cave or The Pigeons Cave is a permanent inhabitation that certificates the ancient traces of life in this area.

 Paleochristian basilica near Peza, III century (Durak village).

 The basilica of Tirana IV century or the Church Kroi I Sh�ngjinit.

This testimony belongs to the western area of the city�s center. It is presented as a construction with a long axis, directed to west east and is composed by the �naos � (the meeting-room) in the west, while �narthex �(the fore meeting �room) and the other environments were situated in the north side.

Interesting for studies on the development of this area, in particular for this rural inhabitation center that links the streets of Dyrrahu and Skampa are the two mosaics, naos and narthex.

It is thought that the building was ruined in the late antiquity period. We have to do with an inhabitation building of the II-III century of our era converted in a church, a cult building during the IV-V century.

Rests of Illyrian fortifications, such as that of Brari, Dajti, Ndroqi etc.

Fortifications or fortified inhabitations in the area of Tirana or in the back land of Durr�si, such as those of Petrela, Preza, Dor�zit, Brarit, Vil�s, Tujanit etc.

THE FORTRESS OF PETRELA

From the discoveries made, the fortress of Petrela is a medieval fortress constructed in the time of invasion of the Byzantium Emperor Justian I, in the VI century AC. This was one of the fortresses he raised in the defensive system of the Empire. This is a fortress raised on a terrain with very inclined sides, rugged in the south and southeast, which made the fortress too protected. It was raised in the moment when the Fortress of Vile, the antique fortress, situated in front of the Fortress of Petrela lost its particular importance.

In the beginning of the XIV�century it was under the Topiaj invasion, at the time owners between Mat and Shkumbin and in one of the sidewalls there is still kept the emblem of Topiaj.

THE FORTRESS OF PREZA

Barleti mentions Preza as the city of Parthinks. The fact that Barleti mentions it shows that Topiaj that owned the area built it before Kruja�s besieges and its construction dates back at the beginning of the XV-century.

As it is understood, it was abandoned during the time of Gjon Kastrioti�s time and his own son. After the Turkish invasion it underwent some reparations, among which there was reconstructed a mosque.

Small or large cemeteries along the fragments of �Egnatia� Street touch Tirana �s area.

ALBANIAN POPULATION

ALBANIAN POPULATION

IN THE BALKANS, AS SEEN BY VARIOUS CARTOGRAPHERS




Map of K. Sax, Austrian (1878).
Karl Sax was a consul of the Austria-Hungary Empire at Adrianople. He was well acquainted with Balkan affairs and had cultivated an intellectual interest in cartography. He made use of previous maps and official reports of populations by Austrian and Bulgarian offices.

Map of G. Lejean, French (1861). Lejean was sent in a journey to the Ottoman Empire to gather information for the French government. His observances of the ethnic composition of the areas he visited produced this map.	Map of G. M. Mackenzie and A.P. Irby, British (1867). The two ladies, Mackenzie and Irby, traveled through the Balkans to show the essentially Slavic nature of the peninsula. They did mark what they concluded to be Albanian inhabited lands.
Map of H. Kiepert, German (1876). Kiepert was a professor at the University of Berlin. He had knowledge of Balkan history. He also inquired official sources in Istanbul and was influenced by the Greek historian P. Aravantinos (1856-7).	Map of K. Sax, Austrian (1878). Karl Sax was a consul of the Austria-Hungary Empire at Adrianople. He was well acquainted with Balkan affairs and had cultivated an intellectual interest in cartography. He made use of previous maps and official reports of populations by Austrian and Bulgarian offices.
Map of E. Barbarich, Italian (1905). The Italian E. Barbarich published a book about the Albanians which contained an interesting map. He interpreted Albania in a very liberal manner to include the whole of Epirus, western Macedonia, the whole of the Drin valley and Kosova.	Map of J. Cvijic, Serbian (1909). A map showing the pro-Serb view and a reflection of Serbian policy of the time. As far as Albania is concerned, Cvijic asserted that the northern region was inhabited by albanianized Serbs and most of the south by albanianized Greeks.
Map of the Albanian colony in Istanbul (1920). This was the first map produced by Albanians, namely, it was produced by a colony of wealthy Albanians living in Istanbul. This map was the basis of Albanian government of the time proposition of Albania's boundaries.	Serbian Census of 1921. This map was produced by the Serbian government as a result of the 1921 census of the Yugoslav kingdom. To distinguish nationalities it used the 'mother-language' criteria. It clearly shows Kosova to be predominantely Albanian-speaking.
Map by the German Foreign Office (1940). This highly detailed map was produced by the Geographical Division of the German Foreign Office and it was based on local official information.	British P.C.G.N. (1942). The Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use produced this map in 1942. The method used was a simple shading of linguistic zones.

These maps, except the German Foreign Office map, were taken from the book Maps and Politics, A Review of the Ethnographic Cartography of Macedonia by H. R. Wilkinson (Liverpool: University Press, 1951).

ETYMOLOGY OF THE NAME "ALBANIA"

ETYMOLOGY OF THE NAME "ALBANIA"


A curious item about Albania is her very name, that is, the etymology of the word "Albania."
The country was known as Illyria in ancient times and until the eleventh century A.D. Since the name "Albania"
appears in 13th century Latin dictionaries, the term was probably in use even earlier.
During the Middle Ages the Albanians called their country Arb'r or Arb'n
and referred to themselves as Arb'resh or Arb'nesh. To this day, there are communities
of Albanians who migrated to Greece and Italy, in the wake of foreign invasions and pressures,
who know themselves by those names (11). According to the Albanian scholar Konitza,
the term "Albania" did not displace "Illyria" completely until the end of the fourteenth century (12).
The term is believed to derive from "Albanoi," the name of an Illyrian tribe in what is now north-central Albania,
which was first mentioned in the second century A.D. by Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer.
The term slowly spread to other Illyrian tribes until its usage became universal among all the Albanian people.

From: Prifti, Peter R. Socialist Albania since 1944 -
Domestic and Foreign Developments. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 1978.

Chronology of Events

Chronology of Events


1225 B.C.

Earliest known Illyrian king, Hyllus, dies.

Fourth Century B.C.

King Bardhylus unites Illyria, Molossia (Epirus) and part of Macedonia. The Illyrian kingdom reaches its peak.

358 B.C.

Illyrians are defeated by Philip II of Macedonia.

312 B.C.

King Glauk of Illyria expels Greeks from Durrës.

232 B.C.

King Agron dies, the Illyrian throne is occupied by Queen Teuta.

165 B.C.

Romans capture King Gent of Illyria and send him to Rome. Illyria is now under Roman control.

First Century A.D.

Christianity comes to Illyrian populated areas.

9 A.D.

Emperor Tiberius of Rome subjugates the Illyrians and divides present day Albania between Dalmatia, Epirus, and Macedonia.

395 A.D.

Division of Roman Empire leaves lands presently inhabited by Albanians under the administration of the Eastern Empire.

Fourth Century - Seventh Century

Goths, Huns, Avars, Serbs, Croats, and Bulgars successively invade Illyrian lands.

Eighth Century

Slav tribes settle into the territories of present-day Slovenia, Bosnia, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia, and assimilate the Illyrian populations of these regions. The Illyrians in the south avert assimilation.

732

Illyrians are subordinated to the patriarchate of Constantinople by the Byzantine Emperor, Leo the Isaurian.

1054

Christianity divides into Catholic and Orthodox churches. Christians in southern Albania are left under the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople and those in the north under the pope in Rome.

1081

Albania and Albanians are mentioned for the first time in a historical record, by Byzantine emperor.

Twelfth Century

Serbs occupy parts of northern and eastern Albanian inhabited lands.

1204

Venice wins control over most of Albania, but Byzantines regain control of the southern portion and establish the Despotate of Epirus.

1272

Forces of the King of Naples occupy Durrës and establish the Kingdom of Arbëria, the first Albanian kingdom since the fall of Illyria.

1385

Albanian ruler of Durrës invites Ottoman forces to intervene against a rival.

1389

Albanians join Serbian-led Balkan army that is defeated by Ottoman forces at the Battle of Kosova.

1403

Gjergj Kastrioti is born.

1443

After losing a battle near Nis, Skenderbeg with a group of Albanian warriors defect from the Ottoman army and return to Kruja.

1444

Albanian principalities unite at Lezha under Skenderbeg, who is proclaimed chief of Albanian resistance.

1449

Albanians, under Skenderbeg, rout Ottoman forces under Sultan Murat II.

1468

Skenderbeg dies.

1478

Kruja falls to Ottoman Turks; Shkodra falls a year later. Subsequently, many Albanians flee to southern Italy, Greece, Egypt, and elsewhere; many remaining are forced to convert to Islam.

Early Seventeenth Century

Some Albanians who convert to Islam find careers in Ottoman Empire's government and military.

Seventeenth Century and Eighteenth Century

About two-thirds of Albanians convert to Islam.

1822

Albanian leader Ali Pasha of Tepelena assassinated by Ottoman agents for promoting autonomy.

1830

1000 Albanian leaders invited to meet with Ottoman general who kills about half of them.

1835

Ottoman Porte divides Albanian-populated lands into vilayets of Janina, Manastir, Shkodra, and Kosova with Ottoman administrators.

1861

First school known to use Albanian language in modern times is open in Shkodra.

1877-78

Treaty of San Stefano, signed after Russo-Turkish War, assigned Albanian-populated lands to Bulgaria, Montenegro and Serbia; but Austria-Hungary and Britain block the treaty's implementation. Albanian leaders meet in Prizren, Kosova, to form the League of Prizren. The League initially advocated autonomy for Albania. At the Congress of Berlin, the Great Powers overturn the Treaty of San Stefano and divide Albanian lands among several states. The League of Prizren begins to organize resistance to the Treaty of Berlin's provisions that affect Albanians.

1881

Ottoman forces crush Albanian resistance fighters at Prizren. The League's leaders and families are arrested and deported.

1897

Ottoman authorities disband a reactivated League of Prizren, execute its leader and ban Albanian language books.

1908

Albanian intellectuals meet in Manastir (Bitolja, Macedonia), at the Congress of Manastir to standardize the Albanian alphabet using the Latin script. Up to now, Latin, Cyrillic and Arabic script had been used.

1912

May. Albanians rise against the Ottoman authorities and seize Shkup (Skopje, Macedonia).

October. First Balkan War begins, and Albanian leaders affirm Albania as an independent state.

November. Albanian delegates at Vlora declare the independence of Albania and establish a provisional government.

December. Ambassadorial conference opens in London and discusses Albania's fate.

1913

May. Treaty of London ends First Balkan War, Second Balkan War begins

November. Treaty of Bucharest ends Second Balkan War. Great Powers recognize an independent Albanian state. Demographics are ignored, however, and half of the territories inhabited by Albanians (such as Kosova and Chameria) are divided among Montenegro, Serbia and Greece.

1914

Prince Wilhelm of Wied is installed as head of the Albanian state by the International Control Commission. His rule ended within six months, with the outbreak of World War I.

1918

World War I ends, with Italian armies occupying most of Albania, and Serbian, Greek and French armies occupying the remainder. Italian and Yugoslav powers begin struggle for dominance over Albanians. In December, Albanian leaders meet at Durrës to discuss Albania's interests at the Paris Peace Conference.

1919

Serbs attack Albanian cities; Albanians adopt guerilla warfare. Albania is denied official representation at the Paris Peace Conference; British, French and Greek negotiators decide to divide Albania among Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia. This decision is vetoed by American president Wilson.

1920

January. Albanian leaders meet in Lushnjë and reject the partitioning of Albania by the Treaty of Paris, warn that Albanians will take up arms in defence of territory, and creates bicameral parliament.

February. Albanian government moves to Tirana, which becomes the capital.

September. Albania forces Italy to withdraw its troops and abandon claims on Albanian territory.

December. Albania is admitted to the League of Nations as sovereign and independent state.

1921

November. Yugoslav troops invade Albania; League of Nations commission forces Yugoslav withdrawal and reaffirms Albania's 1913 borders.

December. Popular Party, led by Xhafer Ypi, forms government with Ahmet Zogu as minister of internal affairs.

1922

August. Ecumenical patriarch in Constantinople recognizes the Autochephalous Albanian Orthodox Church.

September. Ahmet Zogu assumes position as Prime Minister.

1923

Albania's Sunni Muslims break ties with Constantinople and pledge primary allegiance to native country.

1924

March. Zogu's party wins elections for National Assembly, but Zogu steps down after a financial scandal and a assassination attempt.

July. A peasant-backed insurgency wins control of Tirana; Fan S. Noli becomes Prime Minister; Zogu flees to Yugoslavia.

December. Zogu, backed by Yugoslav army, returns to power and begins to smother parliamentary democracy; Noli flees to Italy.

1926

Italy and Albania sign First Treaty of Tirana, which guarantees Zogu's political position and Albania's boundaries.

1928

Zogu pressures the parliament to dissolve itself, a new constituent assembly declares Albania a kingdom and Zogu becomes Zog I, "King of the Albanians."

1931

Zog refuses to renew the First Treaty of Tirana. Italians continue with political and economic pressure.

1934

After Albania signs trade agreements with Greece and Yugoslavia, Italy suspends economic support, then attempts to threaten Albania.

1935

Mussolini presents a gift of 3,000,000 gold frances to Albania; other economic aid follows.

1939

March. Mussolini delivers ultimatum to Albania.

April. Mussolini's troops invade and occupy Albania; Albanian parliament votes to unite Albania with Italy; Zog flees to Greece.

1940

Italian army attacks Greece through Albania.

1941

April. Germany, with support of Italy and other allies defeat Greece and Yugoslavia.

October. Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslav communist leader, directs organizing of Albanian communists.

November. Albanian Communist Party founded; Enver Hoxha becomes first secretary.

1942

September. Communist Party organizes National Liberation Movement, a popular front resistance organization.

October. Non-communist nationalist groups form to resist the Italian occupation.

1943

August. Italy's surrender to Allied forces weakens Italian hold on Albania; Albanian resistance fighters overwhelm five Italian divisions.

September. German forces invade and occupy Albania.

1944

January. Communist Partisans, supplied with British weapons, gain control of southern Albania.

May. Communists meet to organize an Albanian government; Hoxha becomes chairman of executive committee and supreme commander of the Army of National Liberation.

July. Communist forces enter central and northern Albania.

October. Communists establish provisional government with Hoxha as prime minister.

November. Germans withdraw from Tirana, communists enter capital.

December. Communist provisional government adopts laws allowing state regulation of commercial enterprises, foreign and domestic trade.

1945

January. Communist provisional government agrees to restore Kosova to Yugoslavia as an autonomous region; Yugoslav leaders bring Kosova under marshal law. Tribunals begin in Albania to condemn thousands of "war criminals" and "enemies of the people" to death or prison. Communist regime begins to nationalize industry, transportation, forests, pastures.

December. Elections are held for the People's Assembly. Only members of the Democratic Front are permitted to participate.

1946

People's Assembly proclaims Albania a "people's republic"; purges of non-communists from government positions begins. People's Assembly adopts new constitution. Enver Hoxha becomes prime minister, defense minister, foreign minister and commander-in-chief.

July. Treaty of friendship signed with Yugoslavia; Yugoslav advisors and grain begin pouring into Albania.

October. British destroyers hit mines off Albania's coast. The United Nations and the International Court of Justice condemn Albania.

1948

Albanian Communist Party leaders vote to merge Albanian and Yugoslav economies and militaries.

June. Cominform expels Yugoslavia; Albanian leaders launch anti-Yugoslav propaganda campaign, cut economic ties, and force Yugoslav advisors to leave. Later on the treaty of friendship with Yugoslavia is abrogated; Hoxha begins purging high-ranking party members accused of "Titoism"; Soviet Union begins economic aid to Albania.

November. Communist Party of Albania renames itself the Party of Labor of Albania.

1950

Britain and United States insert anti-communist guerillas into Albania; all are unsuccessful.

1955

Albania becomes a founding member of the Warsaw Pact.

1960

Albania sides with China on Sino-Soviet ideological dispute; consequently Soviet economic support is curtailed and Chinese aid is increased.

1961

Soviet Union breaks diplomatic relations, Albania looks towards China for support.

1967

Hoxha regime conducts violent campaign to extinguish religious life in Albania; by year's end over two thousand religious buildings were closed or converted to other uses. Albania is declared "the world's first atheist country," religious leaders are imprisoned and executed.

1968

Albania condemns Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia, subsequently Albania withdraws from Warsaw Pact.

1974

New constitution adopted in Yugoslavia. Autonomous units, including Kosova, become constituent members of the federation.

1976

New constitution adopted. Albania becomes a "people's socialist republic."

1978

China terminates all economic and military aid to Albania.

1981

Massive demonstrations occur in Kosova. Demonstrators demand Kosova become a republic in Yugoslavia. Yugoslav police and army presence is increased in Kosova.

1985

Enver Hoxha dies. Ramiz Alia is his successor.

1989

Alia, addressing the Eighth Plenum of the Central Committee, signals that radical changes to the economic system are necessary.

In Yugoslavia, a new constitution is adopted in Serbia, which limits the autonomy of Kosova. The constitution passes without the approval of the parliament of Kosova.

1990

January. Demonstrations at Shkodra force authorities to declare a state of emergency.

July. Young people demonstrate against regime in Tirana, 5,000 citizens seek refuge in foreign embassies. Albanian delegates of the parliament of Kosova declare the independence of Kosova from Serbia. Subsequently Serbia abolishes the parliament and government of Kosova, closes down the only Albanian daily, and takes over the state-owned television and radio.

August. Government abandons its monopoly on foreign commerce and begins to open Albania to foreign trade.

December. University students demonstrate in streets and call for dictatorship to end; Alia meets with students; multiparty system introduced; the Democratic Party, the first opposition party is established; regime authorizes political pluralism.

1991

January. First opposition newspaper Rilindja Demokratike begins publishing.

March-April. First multiparty elections held since the 1920s; Labor Party wins over 67 percent of votes, Democratic Party wins around 30 percent.

April. Alia reelected to President. Assembly passes law on Major Constitutional Provisions which provides for fundamental human rights and separation of powers and invalidates the 1976 constitution.

June. Prime Minister Fatos Nano and rest of cabinet resign after trade unions call for general strike to protest worsening economic conditions and killing of opposition demonstrators in Shkodra. Party of Labor renamed to Socialist Party of Albania. Albania accepted as a full member of the CSCE.

August. 18,000 Albanians cross the Adriatic to seek asylum in Italy; most are returned. People's Assembly passes law allowing private ownership, foreign investment and private employment of workers.

September. A referendum is held in Kosova. Over 90 percent of voters vote for independence.

December. Democratic Party withdraws ministers after accusing communists of blocking reform. Alia sets up new government headed by Vilson Ahmeti and sets March 1992 for new elections.

1992

March. Democratic Party scores decisive election victory over the Socialist Party in the midst of economic freefall and social chaos. Elections are held in Kosova; the Democratic League of Kosova wins the majority of votes; the elections are called illegal by the Serbian regime.

April. Sali Berisha, leader of the Democratic Party, becomes first democratically elected president.

September. Former President Alia and eighteen other former communist officials, including Nexhmije Hoxha, wife of late dictator Hoxha, arrested and charged with corruption and other offenses.

COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM

COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM

After Hoxha's death in 1985, his handpicked successor, Ramiz Alia, sought to preserve the communist system while introducing gradual reforms in order to revive the economy, which had been declining steadily since the cessation of aid from former communist allies. To this end he legalized some investment in Albania by foreign firms and expanded diplomatic relations with the West. But, with the fall of communism in eastern Europe in 1989, various segments of Albanian society became politically active and began to agitate against the government. The most alienated groups were the intellectuals and the working class--traditionally the vanguards of a communist movement or organization--as well as Albania's youth, which had been frustrated by years of confinement and restrictions. In response to these pressures, Alia granted Albanian citizens the right to travel abroad, curtailed the powers of the Sigurimi, restored religious freedom, and adopted some free-market measures for the economy. In December 1990 Alia endorsed the creation of independent political parties, thus signaling an end to the communists' official monopoly of power. With each concession to the opposition, the state's absolute control over Albanian society weakened. Continuing economic, social, and political instability led to the fall of several governments, and in March 1992 a decisive electoral victory was won by the anticommunist opposition led by the Democratic Party. Alia resigned as president and was succeeded by Sali Berisha, the first democratic leader of Albania since Bishop Noli. Albania's progress toward democratic reform enabled it to gain membership in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, formally bringing to an end its notorious isolation. Efforts to establish a free-market economy caused severe dislocations, but they also opened the road for Albania to obtain vast amounts of aid from developed countries. Albania was thus well on its way toward integrating its politics and institutions with the West, which Albanians have historically viewed as their cultural and geographic home.

The Stalinist State

The Stalinist State

The new rulers inherited an Albania plagued by a host of ills: pervasive poverty, overwhelming illiteracy, blood feuds, epidemics of disease, and gross subjugation of women. In order to eradicate these ills, the communists drafted a radical modernization program intended to bring social and economic liberation to Albania, thus completing the political liberation won in 1912. The government's first major act to "build socialism" was swift, uncompromising agrarian reform, which broke up the large landed estates of the southern beys and distributed the parcels to landless and other peasants. This destroyed the powerful class of the beys. The government also moved to nationalize industry, banks, and all commercial and foreign properties. Shortly after the agrarian reform, the Albanian government started to collectivize agriculture, completing the job in 1967. As a result, peasants lost title to their land. In addition, the Hoxha leadership extended the new socialist order to the more rugged and isolated northern highlands, bringing down the age-old institution of the blood feud and the patriarchal structure of the family and clans, thus destroying the semifeudal class of bajraktars. The traditional role of women--namely, confinement to the home and farm--changed radically as they gained legal equality with men and became active participants in all areas of society. In order to obtain the economic aid needed for modernization, as well as the political and military support to enhance its security, Albania turned to the communist world: Yugoslavia (1944-48), the Soviet Union (1948-61), and China (1961-78). Economically, Albania benefited greatly from these alliances: with hundreds of millions of dollars in aid and credits, and with the assistance of a large number of technicians and specialists sent by its allies, Albania was able to build the foundations of a modern industry and to introduce mechanization into agriculture. As a result, for the first time in modern history, the Albanian populace began to emerge from age-old backwardness and, for a while, enjoyed a higher standard of living. Politically, Hoxha was disillusioned with his communist allies and patrons and broke with each one, charging that they had abandoned Marxism-Leninism and the cause of the proletariat for the sake of rapprochement with the capitalist West. Alienated from both East and West, Albania adopted a "go-it-alone" policy and became notorious as an isolated bastion of Stalinism. Hoxha's program for modernization aimed at transforming Albania from a backward agrarian country into a modern industrial society, and, indeed, within four decades Albania had made respectable--in some cases historic--strides in the development of industry, agriculture, education, the arts, and culture. A notable achievement was the drainage of coastal swamplands--until then breeding grounds for malarial mosquitoes--and the reclamation of land for agricultural and industrial uses. Also symbolic of the change was a historic language reform that fused elements of the Geg and Tosk dialects into a unified literary language. Political oppression, however, offset gains made on the material and cultural planes. Contrary to provisions in the constitution, during Hoxha's reign Albania was ruled, in effect, by the Directorate of State Security, known as the Sigurimi. To eliminate dissent, the government resorted periodically to purges, in which opponents were subjected to public criticism, dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned in forced-labour camps, or executed. Travel abroad was forbidden to all but those on official business. In 1967 the religious establishment, which party leaders and other atheistic Albanians viewed as a backward medieval institution that hampered national unity and progress, was officially banned, and all Christian and Muslim houses of worship were closed.

World War II

World War II


Using Albania as a military base, in October 1940, Italian forces invaded Greece, but they were quickly thrown back into Albania. After Nazi Germany defeated Greece and Yugoslavia in 1941, the regions of Kosova and ,ameria were joined to Albania, thus creating an ethnically united Albanian state. The new state lasted until November 1944, when the Germans--who had replaced the Italian occupation forces following Italy's surrender in 1943--withdrew from Albania. Kosova was then reincorporated into the Serbian part of Yugoslavia, and ,ameria into Greece. Meanwhile, the various communist groups that had germinated in Zog's Albania merged in November 1941 to form the Albanian Communist Party and began to fight the occupiers as a unified resistance force. After a successful struggle against the fascists and two other resistance groups--the National Front (Balli Kombtar) and the pro-Zog Legality Party(Legaliteti)--which contended for power with them, the communists seized control of the country on Nov. 29, 1944. Enver Hoxha, a college instructor who had led the resistance struggle of communist forces, became the leader of Albania by virtue of his post as secretary-general of the party. Albania, which before the war had been under the personal dictatorship of King Zog, now fell under the collective dictatorship of the Albanian Communist Party. The country became officially the People's Republic of Albania in 1946 and, in 1976, the People's Socialist Republic of Albania.

Independent Albania

Creating the new state

Shortly after the defeat of Turkey by the Balkan allies, a conference of ambassadors of the Great Powers (Britain, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Italy) convened in London in December 1912 to settle the outstanding issues raised by the conflict. With support given to the Albanians by Austria-Hungary and Italy, the conference agreed to create an independent state of Albania. But, in drawing the borders of the new state, owing to strong pressure from Albania's neighbours, the Great Powers largely ignored demographic realities and ceded the vast region of Kosova to Serbia, while, in the south, Greece was given the greater part of ,ameria, a part of the old region of Epirus centred on the Thamis River. Many observers doubted whether the new state would be viable with about one-half of Albanian lands and population left outside its borders, especially since these lands were the most productive in food grains and livestock. On the other hand, a small community of about 35,000 ethnic Greeks was included within Albania's borders. (However, Greece, which counted all Albanians of the Orthodox faith--20 percent of the population--as Greeks, claimed that the number of ethnic Greeks was considerably larger.) Thereafter, Kosova and the ,ameria remained troublesome issues in Albanian-Greek and Albanian-Yugoslav relations. The Great Powers also appointed a German prince, Wilhelm zu Wied, as ruler of Albania. Wilhelm arrived in Albania in March 1914, but his unfamiliarity with Albania and its problems, compounded by complications arising from the outbreak of World War I, led him to depart from Albania six months later. The war plunged the country into a new crisis, as the armies of Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia invaded and occupied it. Left without any political leadership or authority, the country was in chaos, and its very fate hung in the balance. At the Paris Peace Conference after the war, the extinction of Albania was averted largely through the efforts of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, who vetoed a plan by Britain, France, and Italy to partition Albania among its neighbours. A national congress, held in Lushnje in January 1920, laid the foundations of a new government. In December of that year Albania, this time with the help of Britain, gained admission to the League of Nations, thereby winning for the first time international recognition as a sovereign nation and state.

Bishop Noli and King Zog

At the start of the 1920s, Albanian society was divided by two apparently irreconcilable forces. One, made up mainly of deeply conservative landowning beys and tribal bajraktars who were tied to the Ottoman and feudal past, was led by Ahmed Bey Zogu, a chieftain from the Mat region of north-central Albania. The other, made up of liberal intellectuals, democratic politicians, and progressive merchants who looked to the West and wanted to modernize and Westernize Albania, was led by Fan S. Noli, an American-educated bishop of the Orthodox church. In the event, this East-West polarization of Albanian society was of such magnitude and complexity that neither leader could master and overcome it. In the unusually open and free political, social, and cultural climate that prevailed in Albania between 1920 and 1924, the liberal forces gathered strength, and, by mid-1924, a popular revolt forced Zogu to flee to Yugoslavia. Installed as prime minister of the new government in June 1924, Noli set out to build a Western-style democracy in Albania, and toward that end he announced a radical program of land reform and modernization. But his vacillation in carrying out the program, coupled with a depleted state treasury and a failure to obtain international recognition for his revolutionary, left-of-centre government, quickly alienated most of Noli's supporters, and six months later he was overthrown by an armed assault led by Zogu and aided by Yugoslavia. Zogu began his 14-year reign in Albania--first as president (1925-28), then as King Zog I (1928-39)--in a country rife with political and social instability. Greatly in need of foreign aid and credit in order to stabilize the country, Zog signed a number of accords with Italy. These provided transitory financial relief to Albania, but they effected no basic change in its economy, especially under the conditions of the Great Depression of the 1930s. Italy, on the other hand, viewed Albania primarily as a bridgehead for military expansion into the Balkans. On April 7, 1939, Italy invaded and shortly after occupied the country. King Zog fled to Greece. The social base of Zog's power was a coalition of southern beys and northern bajraktars. With the support of this coalition--plus a vast Oriental bureaucracy, an efficient police force, and Italian money--King Zog brought a large measure of stability to Albania. He extended the authority of the government to the highlands, reduced the brigandage that had formerly plagued the country, laid the foundations of a modern educational system, and took a few steps to Westernize Albanian social life. On balance, however, his achievements were outweighed by his failures. Although formally a constitutional monarch, in reality Zog was a dictator, and Albania under him experienced the fragile stability of a dictatorship. Zog failed to resolve Albania's fundamental problem, that of land reform, leaving the peasantry as impoverished as before. In order to stave off famine, the government had to import food grains annually, but, even so, thousands of people migrated abroad in search of a better life. Moreover, Zog denied democratic freedoms to Albanians and created conditions that spawned periodic revolts against his regime, alienated most of the educated class, fomented labour unrest, and led to the formation of the first communist groups in the country.

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM

By the mid-19th century Turkey was in the throes of the "Eastern Question," as the peoples of the Balkans, including Albanians, sought to realize their national aspirations. To defend and promote their national interests, Albanians met in Prizren, a town in Kosova, in 1878 and founded the Albanian League of Prizren. The league had two main goals, one political and the other cultural. First, it strove (unsuccessfully) to unify all Albanian territories--at the time divided among the four vilayets, or provinces, of Kosova, Shkodra, Monastir, and Janina--into one autonomous state within the framework of the Ottoman Empire. Second, it spearheaded a movement to develop Albanian language, literature, education, and culture. In line with the second program, in 1908 Albanian leaders met in the town of Monastir (now Bitola, Macedonia) and adopted a national alphabet. Based mostly on the Latin script, this supplanted several other alphabets, including Arabic and Greek, that were in use until then. The Albanian League was suppressed by the Turks in 1881, in part because they were alarmed by its strong nationalistic orientation. By then, however, the league had become a powerful symbol of Albania's national awakening, and its ideas and objectives fueled the drive that culminated later in national independence. When the Young Turks, who seized power in Istanbul in 1908, ignored their commitments to Albanians to institute democratic reforms and to grant autonomy, Albanians embarked on an armed struggle, which, at the end of three years (1910-12), forced the Turks to agree, in effect, to grant their demands. Alarmed at the prospect of Albanian autonomy, Albania's Balkan neighbours, who had already made plans to partition the region, declared war on Turkey in October 1912, and Greek, Serbian, and Montenegrin armies advanced into Albanian territories. To prevent the annihilation of the country, Albanian national delegates met at a congress in Vlor'. They were led by Ismail Qemal, an Albanian who had held several high positions in the Ottoman government. On Nov. 28, 1912, the congress issued the Vlor' proclamation, which declared Albania's independence.

The decline of Byzantium and Ottoman conquest

The decline of Byzantium and Ottoman conquest

Owing partly to the weakness of the Byzantine Empire, Albania, beginning in the 9th century, came under the domination, in whole or in part, of a succession of foreign powers: Bulgarians, Norman crusaders, the Angevins of southern Italy, Serbs, and Venetians. The final occupation of the country in 1347 by the Serbs, led by Stefan Dusan, caused massive migrations of Albanians abroad, especially to Greece and the Aegean islands. By the mid-14th century, Byzantine rule had come to an end in Albania, after nearly 1,000 years. A few decades later the country was confronted with a new threat, that of the Turks, who at this juncture were expanding their power in the Balkans. The Ottoman Turks invaded Albania in 1388 and completed the occupation of the country about four decades later (1430). But after 1443 an Albanian of military genius--Gjergj Kastrioti (1405-68), known as Skenderbeg--rallied the Albanian princes and succeeded in driving the occupiers out. For the next 25 years, operating out of his stronghold in the mountain town of Kruja, Skenderbeg frustrated every attempt by the Turks to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and western Europe. His unequal fight against the mightiest power of the time won the esteem of Europe as well as some support in the form of money and military aid from Naples, the papacy, Venice, and Ragusa. After he died, Albanian resistance gradually collapsed, enabling the Turks to reoccupy the country by 1506. Skenderbeg's long struggle to keep Albania free became highly significant to the Albanian people, as it strengthened their solidarity, made them more conscious of their national identity, and served later as a great source of inspiration in their struggle for national unity, freedom, and independence.

The Ottoman Empire

The nature of Turkish rule

The Turks established their dominion over Albania just as the Renaissance began to unfold in Europe, so that, cut off from contact and exchanges with western Europe, Albania had no chance to participate in, or benefit from, the humanistic achievements of that era. Conquest also caused great suffering and vast destruction of the country's economy, commerce, art, and culture. Moreover, to escape persecution by their conquerors, about one-fourth of the country's population fled abroad to southern Italy, Sicily, and the Dalmatian coast. Although the Turks ruled Albania for more than four centuries, they were unable to extend their authority throughout the country. In the highland regions Turkish authorities exercised only a formal sovereignty, as the highlanders refused to pay taxes, serve in the army, or surrender their arms--although they did pay an annual tribute to Constantinople. Albanians rose in rebellion time and again against Ottoman occupation. In order to check the ravages of Albanian resistance--which was partly motivated by religious feelings, namely, defense of the Christian faith--as well as to bring Albania spiritually closer to Turkey, the Ottomans initiated a systematic drive toward the end of the 16th century to Islamize the population. This drive continued through the following century, by the end of which two-thirds of the people had converted to Islam. A major reason Albanians became Muslims was to escape Turkish violence and exploitation, an instance of which was a crushing tax that Christians would have to pay if they refused to convert. Islamization aggravated the religious fragmentation of Albanian society, which had first appeared in the Middle Ages and which was later used by Constantinople and Albania's neighbours in attempts to divide and denationalize the Albanian people. Hence leaders of the Albanian national movement in the 19th century used the rallying cry "The religion of Albanians is Albanianism" in order to overcome religious divisions and foster national unity. The basis of Ottoman rule in Albania was a feudalmilitary system of landed estates, called timars, which were awarded to military lords for loyalty and service to the empire. As Ottoman power began to decline in the 18th century, the central authority of the empire in Albania gave way to the local authority of autonomy-minded lords. The most successful of these lords were three generations of pashas of the Bushati family, who dominated most of northern Albania from 1757 to 1831, and Ali Pasa Tepelena of Janina (now Ionnina, Greece), a colourful Oriental-type despot who ruled over southern Albania and northern Greece from 1788 to 1822. These pashas created separate states within the Ottoman state until they were overthrown by the sultan. After the fall of the pashas, in 1831 Turkey officially abolished the timar system. In the wake of its collapse, economic and social power passed from the feudal lords to private landowning beys and, in the northern highlands, to tribal chieftains called bajraktars, who presided over given territories with rigid patriarchal societies that were often torn by blood feuds. Peasants who were formerly serfs now worked on the estates of the beys as tenant farmers. Ottoman rule in Albania remained backward and oppressive to the end. In these circumstances, many Albanians went abroad in search of careers and advancement within the empire, and an unusually large number of them, in proportion to Albania's population, rose to positions of prominence as government and military leaders. More than two dozen grand viziers (similar to prime ministers) of Turkey were of Albanian origin.

From Illyria to Albania

From Illyria to Albania

When the Roman Empire divided into east and west in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire. As in the Roman Empire, some Illyrians rose to positions of eminence in the new empire. Three of the emperors who shaped the early history of Byzantium (reigning from 491 to 565) were of Illyrian origin: Anastasius I, Justin I, and--the most celebrated of Byzantine emperors--Justinian I. In the first decades under Byzantine rule (until 461), Illyria suffered the devastation of raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. Not long after these barbarian invaders swept through the Balkans, the Slavs appeared. Between the 6th and 8th centuries they settled in Illyrian territories and proceeded to assimilate Illyrian tribes in much of what is now Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. The tribes of southern Illyria, however--including modern Albania--averted assimilation and preserved their native tongue. In the course of several centuries, under the impact of Roman, Byzantine, and Slavic cultures, the tribes of southern Illyria underwent a transformation, and a transition occurred from the old Illyrian population to a new Albanian one. As a consequence, from the 8th to the 11th century, the name Illyria gradually gave way to the name, first mentioned in the 2nd century AD by the geographer Ptolemy of Alexandria, of the Albanoi tribe, which inhabited what is now central Albania. From a single tribe the name spread to include the rest of the country as Arbri and, finally, Albania. The genesis of Albanian nationality apparently occurred at this time as the Albanian people became aware that they shared a common territory, name, language, and cultural heritage. (Scholars have not been able to determine the origin of Shqip'ria, the Albanians' own name for their land, which is believed to have supplanted the name Albania during the 16th and 17th centuries. It probably was derived from shqipe, or "eagle," which, modified into shqipria, became "the land of the eagle.") Long before that event, Christianity had become the established religion in Albania, supplanting pagan polytheism and eclipsing for the most part the humanistic world outlook and institutions inherited from the Greek and Roman civilizations. But, though the country was in the fold of Byzantium, Albanian Christians remained under the jurisdiction of the Roman pope until 732. In that year the iconoclast Byzantine emperor Leo III, angered by Albanian archbishops because they had supported Rome in the Iconoclastic Controversy, detached the Albanian church from the Roman pope and placed it under the patriarch of Constantinople. When the Christian church split in 1054 between the East and Rome, southern Albania retained its tie to Constantinople while northern Albania reverted to the jurisdiction of Rome. This split in the Albanian church marked the first significant religious fragmentation of the country.

Medieval culture

In the latter part of the Middle Ages, Albanian urban society reached a high point of development. Foreign commerce flourished to such an extent that leading Albanian merchants had their own agencies in Venice, Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), and Thessalonica (now Thessaloniki, Greece). The prosperity of the cities also stimulated the development of education and the arts. Albanian, however, was not the language used in schools, churches, and official government transactions. Instead, Greek and Latin, which had the powerful support of the state and the church, were the official languages of culture and literature. The new administrative system of the themes, or military provinces created by the Byzantine Empire, contributed to the eventual rise of feudalism in Albania, as peasant soldiers who served military lords became serfs on their landed estates. Among the leading families of the Albanian feudal nobility were the Thopias, Balshas, Shpatas, Muzakas, Aranitis, Dukagjinis, and Kastriotis. The first three of these rose to become rulers of principalities that were practically independent of Byzantium.

The Roman Empire

The Roman Empire

The Romans ruled Illyria--which now became the province of Illyricum--for about six centuries. Under Roman rule Illyrian society underwent great change, especially in its outward, material aspect. Art and culture flourished, particularly in Apollonia, whose school of philosophy became celebrated in antiquity. To a great extent, though, the Illyrians resisted assimilation into Roman culture. Illyrian culture survived, along with the Illyrian tongue, though many Latin words entered the language and later became a part of the Albanian language. Christianity manifested itself in Illyria during Roman rule, about the middle of the 1st century AD. At first the new religion had to compete with Oriental cults--among them that of Mithra, Persian god of light--which had entered the land in the wake of Illyria's growing interaction with eastern regions of the empire. For a long time it also had to compete with gods worshiped by Illyrian pagans. The steady growth of the Christian community in Dyrrhachium (the Roman name for Epidamnus) led to the creation there of a bishopric in AD 58. Later, episcopal seats were established in Apollonia, Buthrotum (modern Butrint), and Scodra (modern Shkodr'). By the time the empire began to decline, the Illyrians, profiting from a long tradition of martial habits and skills, had acquired great influence in the Roman military hierarchy. Indeed, several of them went on from there to become emperors. From the mid-3rd to the mid-4th century AD the reins of the empire were almost continuously in the hands of emperors of Illyrian origin: Gaius Decius, Claudius Gothicus, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian, and Constantine the Great.

Illyrians

Illyrians

The origins of the Albanian people, as was mentioned before, are not definitely known, but data drawn from history and from linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological studies have led to the conclusion that Albanians are the direct descendants of the ancient Illyrians and that the latter were natives of the lands they inhabited. Similarly, the Albanian language derives from the language of the Illyrians, the transition from Illyrian to Albanian apparently occurring between the 4th and 6th centuries AD.

Illyrian culture is believed to have evolved from the Stone Age and to have manifested itself in the territory of Albania towardthe beginning of the Bronze Age, about 2000 BC. The Illyrians were not a uniform body of people but a conglomeration of many tribes that inhabited the western part of the Balkans, from what is now Slovenia in the northwest to and including the region of Epirus, which extends about halfway down the mainland of modern Greece. In general, Illyrians in the highlands of Albania were more isolated than those in the lowlands, and their culture evolved more slowly--a distinction that persisted throughout Albania's history.

In its beginning, the kingdom of Illyria comprised the actual territories of Dalmatia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, with a large part of modern Serbia. Shkodra (Scutari) was its capital, just as it is now, the most important center of Northern Albania.

The earliest known king of Illyria was Hyllus (The Star) who is recorded to have died in the year 1225 B.C. The Kingdom, however, reached its zenith in the fourth century B.C. when Bardhylus (White Star), one of the most prominent of the Illyrian kings, united under scepter the kingdoms of Illyria, Molossia (Epirus*) and a good part of Macedonia. But its decay began under the same ruler as a result of the attacks made on it by Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.

In the year 232 B.C. the Illyrian throne was occupied by Teuta, the celebrated Queen whom historians have called Catherine the Great of Illyria. The depredations of her thriving navy on the rising commercial development of the Republic forced the Roman Senate to declare war against the Queen. A huge army and navy under the command of of Santumalus and Alvinus attacked Central Albania, and, after two years of protracted warfare, Teuta was induced for peace (227 B.C.)

The last king of Illyria was Gentius, of pathetic memory. In 165 B.C. he was defeated by the Romans and brought to Rome as a captive.

Henceforth, Illyria consisting of the Enkalayes, the Taulantes, the Epirotes, and the Ardianes, became a Roman dependency. She was carved out into three independent republics the capitals of which were respectively Scodar (Shkoder), Epidamnus (Durres) and Dulcigno (todays' Ulqin in Montenegro).

Authors of antiquity relate that the Illyrians were a sociable and hospitable people, renowned for their daring and bravery at war. Illyrian women were fairly equal in status to the men, even to the point of becoming heads of tribal federations. In matters of religion, Illyrians were pagans who believed in an afterlife and buried their dead along with arms and various articles intended for personal use. The land of Illyria was rich in minerals--iron, copper, gold, silver--and Illyrians became skillful in the mining and processing of metals. They were highly skilled boat builders and sailors as well; indeed, their light, swift galleys known as liburnae were of such superior design that the Romans incorporated them into their own fleet as a type of warship called the Liburnian.

The Greeks

From the 8th to the 6th century BC the Greeks founded a string of colonies on Illyrian soil, two of the most prominent of which were Epidamnus (modern Durr's) and Apollonia (near modern Vlor'). The presence of Greek colonies on their soil brought the Illyrians into contact with a more advanced civilization, which helped them to develop their own culture, while they in turn influenced the economic and political life of the colonies. In the 3rd century BC the colonies began to decline and eventually perished. Roughly parallel with the rise of Greek colonies, Illyrian tribes began to evolve politically from relatively small and simple entities into larger and more complex ones. At first they formed temporary alliances with one another for defensive or offensive purposes, then federations and, still later, kingdoms. The most important of these kingdoms, which flourished from the 5th to the 2nd century BC, were those of the Enkalayes, the Taulantes, the Epirotes, and the Ardianes. After warring for the better part of the 4th century BC against the expansionist Macedonian state of Philip II and Alexander the Great, the Illyrians faced a greater threat from the growing power of the Romans. Seeing Illyrian territory as a bridgehead for conquests east of the Adriatic, Rome in 229 BC attacked and defeated the Illyrians, led by Queen Teuta, and by 168 BC established effective control over Illyria.

*) "Epirus" means "mainland" or "continent" in Greek, and was originally applied to the whole coast northward of the Corinthian Gulf in contradistinction to the neighboring islands, Corfu (Corcyra), Leucas, etc. In consequence it does have not any ethnical meaning, as it is sometimes proclaimed. The name of Epirus, as applied to Southern Albania, is misleading inasmuch as its Greek sound gives the idea that one is dealing with a Greek territory. This is due to the unfortunate fact that the principal sources of the history of this section of Albania, are the writings of Greek historians, some of whom tend to hellenize everything. Yet, all the ancient Greek writers, including Theopompus, Thucydides, and the more modern Plutarch, are in full accord in stating that Epirus was exclusively inhabited by non-Hellenic barbarous populations.